Ecology & Environmental Sciences

Abstract

This study is a comprehensive review examining the effects of human factors on aviation accidents, particularly on pilot behavior and decision-making processes. Despite being a sector with a high level of automation and technological reliability, aviation continues to have the human element as the weakest link in the system. The study addresses the impact of the human factor on flight safety in terms of its cognitive, psychological, physiological, and organizational dimensions. It reveals that pilot errors stem not only from individual inadequacies but also from multifaceted factors such as training, communication, workload, fatigue, stress, and organizational pressure. The analyses emphasized that human errors are not the primary cause of accidents but rather a consequence of weaknesses within the system. Furthermore, it was determined that training, fatigue management, communication, and decision-making processes that support human performance need to be improved for the sustainability of flight safety. The study concluded that proper management of the human factor not only prevents accidents but also contributes to the formation of a long-term safety culture. This review integrates the existing literature, provides a human factor-focused perspective, and offers a methodological and conceptual framework for future research.

Keywords: aviation accidents, human factor, pilot error, flight safety, safety management, human performance

Introduction

Aviation is one of the sectors where technological developments are most intensively applied and where safety is of the utmost importance. Although modern aircraft are equipped with advanced automation systems, precision navigation technologies, and continuously evolving maintenance processes, the human factor remains one of the weakest links in the system.^1,2

Reports published by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and other aviation authorities reveal that human error is directly or indirectly involved in the majority of aviation accidents. In this context, the “human factor” is not merely a technical component in the analysis of aviation accidents, but rather a combination of psychological, physiological, and cognitive processes.³

Pilot errors, in particular, emerge as one of the most significant factors threatening flight safety. Pilots decision-making processes, attention levels, stress management skills, and communication habits are fundamental determinants of flight safety. In many accidents, it is seen that it is not a technical malfunction but a small error in human behavior that creates a chain reaction and turns into a disaster. Therefore, it is of great importance to systematically examine and understand the human factor, especially in terms of pilots. The origin of pilot errors in aviation accidents should generally be evaluated within a complex network of interactions. This interaction involves many variables, such as inadequate training, operational pressures, organizational culture, fatigue, stress, and lack of situational awareness. The information overload, high risk level, and time pressure that pilots encounter during their duties are important factors that increase the likelihood of error.

For example, in an emergency scenario, failing to make the right decision within seconds or applying procedures incorrectly can lead to fatal consequences. In this context, the pilot’s cognitive capacity and psychological resilience are among the most critical elements of flight safety. Human factors affecting the decision-making process of flight crews must be addressed not only individually but also in terms of intrateam communication and coordination. The concept of Crew Resource Management (CRM) emerged as a result of this need. CRM practices aim to develop skills such as effective communication, task sharing, leadership, and error management among pilots and cabin crew. However, the existence of CRM training alone does not eliminate human error. This is because humans are beings with cognitive limitations who cannot act independently of emotional influences. Pilots face many psychological pitfalls, such as fatigue, distraction, overconfidence, cognitive biases, and loss of situational awareness. Fatigue is particularly common among commercial pilots due to long flight times and disrupted biological rhythms. This increases the likelihood of making incorrect decisions by prolonging reaction times.

In conclusion, the human factor in aviation accidents is not merely the sum of individual errors; it is a multidimensional phenomenon extending from training to organization, and from technology to culture. Therefore, it is essential to consider both human psychology and systems engineering when analyzing pilot related accidents.

This article will comprehensively examine the causes, effects, and approaches to preventing pilot errors in aviation accidents from a human factor perspective. The aim is to understand the nature of human error and to reveal how safety mechanisms that can tolerate this nature within the system can be developed.

Academic studies on human factor

Wiegmann and Shappell⁴ state in their 2003 study that the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) is an important framework for understanding pilot errors. This system categorizes pilot errors into four main categories: skill-based errors, decision errors, perceptual errors, and violations. Skill-based errors are mistakes made by pilots while performing routine tasks due to loss of attention or memory; for example, forgetting to turn on a switch or skipping items on a checklist. Decision errors involve misjudging the situation and making incorrect choices. Violations contribute to accidents in the form of routine violations (bending the rules) or exceptional violations (deliberately breaking the rules).

Again, according to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),⁵ pilot errors can also be triggered by environmental and psychological factors. Stress, workload, fatigue, spatial disorientation, and similar conditions are commonly observed precursors to these errors. For example, spatial disorientation, a condition in which a pilot is unable to correctly perceive the aircraft's position or altitude, has been one of the causes of many fatal accidents.

NASA, one of the world's most prestigious aerospace organizations,⁶ states that developments in safety protocols such as Crew Resource Management (CRM) in recent years have played a significant role in reducing accidents caused by poor communication, leadership, and decision-making errors among flight crews. The agency adds that CRM focuses on team dynamics, promoting better situational awareness and coordination in order to reduce the impact of human error.

International Civil Aviation Organization⁷ states that, in addition to flight training, technological advances in eye-tracking systems and cockpit design are effective in reducing pilots cognitive load and improving their performance. These systems help pilots maintain better situational awareness and can prevent skill-based errors from turning into accidents.

In Kılıç’s⁸ study titled “Human factor in civil and military aircraft accidents: Case study: Helios Airways flight HCY522, Boeing 737,” it is stated that 70% of civil and military aircraft accidents that occurred in the last 15 years were caused by human error. He describes the work done by military and civil companies to minimize human error and analyzes the “Helios 522” crash, which was a human-caused flight accident. Regarding accident prevention, it recommends removing time pressure on airline personnel, adjusting working hours, ensuring high morale and motivation among personnel, and providing opportunities to mature the corporate culture rather than increasing pressure on personnel.

Uslu and Dönmez⁹ reported that the vast majority of accidents in commercial aviation occur on passenger aircraft and are concentrated during the climb and descent phases of flight. They emphasized that the role of pilots in accidents is one of the two factors most frequently contributing to accidents.

Mutlu,¹⁰ who carefully examined studies on easements, emphasized that studies on the follow-up of easement plans, which are of great importance in terms of land management, are quite insufficient after they are created and approved.

In his 2020 study titled “An Evaluation of the Concept of Aviation Accidents and Pilot Error,” Akca discussed the responsibilities of flight crew members regarding flight safety, examined air transport accidents from various perspectives, and emphasized the significant role of pilot error in accidents.¹¹

Result and discussion

The overall assessments obtained show that, despite technological advances in flight safety, the human factor still plays a decisive role. The pilot’s psychological state, cognitive load, communication skills, and stress management ability directly affect the safety level of a flight. No matter how complex aviation systems become, the human factor remains at the center of the system. It is understood that a large proportion of flight accidents are caused by the chain reaction of minor errors in human behavior rather than technical failures. This situation indicates that the position of humans within the system needs to be reconsidered in safety management.

Pilot errors do not usually arise from a single cause, but rather result from the interaction of a series of cognitive, environmental, and organizational factors. This interaction becomes even more complex with elements such as fatigue, distraction, communication breakdown, time pressure, and organizational stress. Therefore, understanding the human factor requires not only examining individual performance but also analyzing the effects of the system on humans. The findings reveal that improving flight safety requires not only technical measures but also psychological and organizational approaches that optimize human performance.

The foundation of safety culture in modern aviation should be based on the understanding that rather than eliminating the possibility of error, a system should be established that can detect and manage errors. Therefore, an approach that views pilots' potential for error not as a weakness but as an opportunity for learning and improvement should be adopted.

Analyses focusing on the human factor yield more effective results in reducing the impact of errors rather than preventing accidents. This demonstrates that safety is a value built not only with technology but also with people. Since pilots decisionmaking processes are shaped under high risk and pressure, the existence of systems that support these processes is critical.

Human and machine interaction, cognitive load control, and situational awareness preservation are key components of safety at every stage of flight. In this context, continuity of communication, crew coordination, and mutual trust in flight operations is of paramount importance.

The overall assessment of the research shows that in most accidents, the pilot is not the sole source of error and that all components of the system must be considered in conjunction with human behavior. Therefore, aviation safety is now an area where not only individual errors but also systemic weaknesses must be evaluated.

The aviation of the future should position humans not as a source of error, but as conscious actors at the center of safety. This understanding emphasizes the importance of investing in human cognitive and ethical capacity beyond technological advances. Sustainable human-factor-based analysis will make a lasting difference in the development of aviation safety. Again in this context, every scientific assessment conducted creates a new learning area for understanding and improving human performance.

Additionally, the findings of this study highlight the need to strengthen human factor related practices to enhance flight safety in both civil and military aviation. In particular, it is recommended that pilot training programs place greater emphasis not only on technical competencies but also on decision making, stress management, situational awareness, and team communication skills. Considering the intense operational pace and time pressure in civil aviation, it is important to implement fatigue management systems more effectively. In military aviation, due to high-risk mission profiles, it is recommended to expand simulation-based training aimed at increasing psychological resilience. Furthermore, in both fields, it is necessary to adopt a fair safety culture that reduces organizational pressure and views mistakes as learning opportunities rather than punishments. Future research should address the human factor not only in the context of pilot error but also within the framework of system integrity. In particular, comparative studies of classification models such as HFACS (Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS is a framework developed specifically to systematically analyze human errors in aviation accidents and incidents. It is based on James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model and addresses accidents not only as pilot errors but also in conjunction with organizational and systemic causes.)) across different countries, operation types, and flight phases could make significant contributions to the literature. In addition, the effects of eye-tracking systems, biometric sensors, and AI supported decision support mechanisms on pilot performance should be investigated through experimental studies. In the long term, increasing interdisciplinary studies examining the role of human-machine interaction in safety will contribute to the development of sustainable flight safety approaches.

Finally, the most important contribution of such review studies is that they bring together different research results to offer an interdisciplinary perspective. This enables the development of a comprehensive understanding of both the academic literature and the field of application.

Review articles lay the groundwork for identifying new research topics, systematizing the accumulation of knowledge, and gaining a deeper understanding of the human factor. Therefore, this study has the potential to not only summarize existing knowledge but also to create a framework that will guide future research.