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Physics & Astronomy International Journal

Research Article Volume 2 Issue 4

Fibonacci oscillator’s and (p,q)–deformed lorentz transformations

Carlos Castro Perelman

Center for Theoretical Studies of Physical Systems, Clark Atlanta University, Georgia

Correspondence: Carlos Castro Perelman, Center for Theoretical Studies of Physical Systems, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, GA 30314, Georgia

Received: July 24, 2018 | Published: August 8, 2018

Citation: Perelman CC. Fibonacci oscillator’s and (p,q)-deformed lorentz transformations. Phys Astron Int J. 2018;2(4):341-347. DOI: 10.15406/paij.2018.02.00108

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Abstract

The two-parameter quantum calculus used in the construction of Fibonacci oscillators is briefly reviewed before presenting the (p,q) -deformed Lorentz transformations which leave invariant the Minkowski spacetime intervalt2x2y2z2 . Such transformations require the introduction of three different types of exponential functions leading to the(p,q) -analogs of hyperbolic and trigonometric functions. The composition law of two successive Lorentz boosts (rotations) is no longer additive ξ3=ξ1+ξ2  (θ3=θ1+θ2 ). We finalize with a discussion on quantum groups, noncommutative spacetimes, κ -deformed Poincare algebra and quasi-crystals1.

Keywords: fibonacci oscillators, quantum groups, golden mean, noncommutative geometry

Introduction: the Fibonacci and (p,q) oscillators

Fibonacci oscillators1 offer a natural unification of quantum oscillators which are related to quantum groups.2-8 They are the most general oscillators having the property of spectrum degeneracy and invariance under the quantum group. The quantum algebra with two deformation parameters may have a greater flexibility when it comes to applications in realistic phenomenological physical models.9-11 One of the main problems in the theory of quantum groups and algebras is to interpret the physical meaning of the deformation parameters.1 In this respect, one possible explanation for the deformation parameters was accomplished by a relativistic quantum mechanical model.12-14 In such a model, the multi-dimensional Fibonacci oscillator can be interpreted as a relativistic oscillator corresponding to the bound state of two particles with massesm1,m2 . Therefore, the additional parameter has a physical significance so that it can be related to the mass of the second bosonic particle in a two particle relativistic quantum harmonic oscillator bound state.

Most recently, the two-parameter-deformed Hermite polynomials were computed in Marinho & Brito15 by replacing the quantum harmonic oscillator problem for Fibonacci oscillators, and by changing the ordinary derivative for the Jackson derivative. The deformed energy spectrum was found in terms of these parameters. The ordinary quantum mechanics case was easily recovered whenp=q=1 . Although, any quantum algebra with one or more deformation parameters may be mapped onto the standard single-parameter case,16,17 it has been argued that the physical results obtained from a two-parameter deformed oscillator system are not the same.18-20 Before embarking into a discussion of the Fibonacci and(p,q) oscillators we shall follow closely the definitions and results about quantum calculus and(p,q) -numbers found in Duran et al.21, Kac &Cheung22 where many references can be found. The(p,q) number is defined for any numbern as

[n]p,q=[n]q,ppnqnpq=pn1+pn2q++pqn2+qn1  (1.1)

which is a natural generalization of the q -number

[n]q1qn1q=1+q++qn2+qn1 (1.2)

The(p,q) -derivative of a functionf(x) is

Dp,qf(x)f(px)f(qx)(pq)x,x=0  (1.3)

A very important function is the(p,q) -Gauss Binomial defined by

(xy)np,q=(x+y)(px+qy)(p2x+q2y)(pn2x+qn2y)(pn1x+qn1y),n1  (1.4)

(xy)np,q=nk=0[nk]p,qpk(k1)/2q(nk)(nk1)/2xkynk  (1.5)

(xy)n=1 , forn=0 , and the (p,q) -Gauss Binomial coefficient is given by

 [nk]p,q[n]p,q![nk]p,q![k]p,q!,nk (1.6)

[n]p,q!=[n]p,q[n1]p,q[n2]p,q[2]p,q[1]p,q,nN (1.7)

There are three types of(p,q) -exponential functions

ep,q(x)n=0pn(n1)/2xn[n]p,q!  (1.8)

Ep,q(x)n=0qn(n1)/2xn[n]p,q! (1.9)

˜ep,q(x)n=0xn[n]p,q!  (1.10)

which satisfy the basic identities

ep,q(x)Ep,q(y)=˜ep,q(xy)=n=0(xy)np,q[n]p,q!,ep,q(x)Ep,q(x)=1  (1.11)

e1p,1q(x)=Ep,q(x),E1p,1q(x)=ep,q(x),  (1.12)

The(p,q) hyperbolic functions are defined by

sinhp,q(x)=ep,q(x)ep,q(x)2,SINHp,q(x)=Ep,q(x)Ep,q(x)2,

˜sinhp,q(x)=˜ep,q(x)˜ep,q(x)2  (1.13)

coshp,q(x)=ep,q(x)+ep,q(x)2,COSHp,q(x)=Ep,q(x)+Ep,q(x)2,

˜coshp,q(x)=˜ep,q(x)+˜ep,q(x)2  (1.14)

In particular, they obey the key identity

coshp,q(x)COSHp,q(x)sinhp,q(x)SINHp,q(x)=1 (1.15)

Similar definitions hold for the trigonometric functions which obey

cosp,q(x)COSp,q(x)+sinp,q(x)SINp,q(x)=1  (1.16)

For further details we refer to.21

Whenp,q are given by the Golden Mean, and its Galois conjugate, respectively

p=τ=1+52,q=1/τ=152  (1.17)

thep,q numbers[n]p,q coincide precisely with the Fibonacci numbers as a result of Binet’s formula

[n]p,q=[n]q,pτn(1)nτn5=Fn (1.18)

Furthermore, the powers ofτn andτn can be expressed themselves in terms ofτ and the Fibonacci numbers as follows

τn=Fn+1+Fnτ,τn=(1)nFn1+(1)n+1Fnτ  (1.19)

Consequently, the powers ofτ are just Dirichlet integers which have the formm+n5 , withm,n integers, and the (p,q) -factorial

[n]p,q!=FnFn1Fn2....  (1.20)

becomes a product of descending Fibonacci numbers. Therefore, all the numerical factors which define the hyperbolic and trigonometric (p,q) -functions will simplify enormously in this special case (1.17).

An early (p,q) oscillator realization (a la Jordan-Schwinger) of two parameter quantum algebras, sup,q(2);sup,q(1,1);ospp,q(2|1) , and the centerless Virasoro algebra was constructed.9-11

Given the creationA and annihilationA operators, the spectrum was found to obey

AA=[N+1]p,q,AA=[N]p,q,[N,A]=A,[N,A]=A (1.21)

AAqAA=pN,AApAA=qN  (1.22)

Furthermore,[n]p,q is the unique solution of the generalized Fibonacci recursion relation9-11

[n+1]p,q=(p+q)[n]p,qpq[n]p,q,[1]p,q=1,[0]p,q=0,n1  (1.23)

whenp=τ,q=τ1 , the above equation (1.23) reduces to the standard recursion relation of the Fibonacci numbers2 Fn+1=Fn+Fn1 . Whenq=p(p) the relations (1.22) reduce to the (anti) commutation relations of bosonic (fermionic) q -oscillators. The special case(q=0,p=0) , or(q=0,p=0) gives a deformation of a single mode of the oscillators exhibiting “infinite statistics".23 These hypothetical particles of “infinite-statistics" were coinedquons . The(p,q) analogs of the fermionic, parafermionic and parabosonic oscillators were also identified.9-11

A generating function for the(p,q) -numbers[n]p,q is9-11

n=0[n]p,qzn=z(1qz)(1pz)  (1.24)

The˜ep,q(z) exponential allows to construct the(p,q) -coherent states, forz complex:

|z>p.q=N(z)˜ep,q(zA)|0>,N(z)=1˜ep,q(|z|2),  (1.25)

The inner product is9-11

<z1|z2>=N(z1)N(z2)˜ep,q(ˉz1z2)  (1.26)

The non-extensive Tsallis entropy of bosonic Fibonacci oscillators was studied in1 where connections between the thermo-statistical properties of a gas of the two-parameter deformed bosonic particles called Fibonacci oscillators and the properties of the Tsallis thermostatistics was found. It was shown that the thermo-statistics of the two-parameter deformed bosons can be studied by the formalism of Fibonacci calculus.

Having presented this brief tour of the (p,q) -oscillator and its connection to the generalized Fibonacci recursion relations we shall proceed with the explicit construction of (p,q) -Lorentz transformations and its role in deformations of Special Relativity.

(p,q) -Lorentz transformations

In this section we shall construct the (p,q) -Lorentz transformations based on the deformed trigonometric and hyperbolic functions associated with the (p,q) -quantum calculus. These transformations reflect the nature of the two parameter deformed Lorentz algebra so(1,3)p,q .9-11 The (p,q) -Lorentz boost transformations along the x -direction in4D that we propose are given by

t=tcoshp,q(ξ)COSHp,q(ξ)xsinhp,q(ξ)SINHp,q(ξ)  (2.1)

x=xcoshp,q(ξ)COSHp,q(ξ)tsinhp,q(ξ)SINHp,q(ξ)  (2.2)

y=y,z=z (2.3)

due to the identity

coshp,q(ξ)COSHp,q(ξ)sinhp,q(ξ)SINHp,q(ξ)=1 (2.4)

It follows that under(p,q) -Lorentz transformations the Minkowski spacetime interval remains invariant

(t)2(x)2(y)2(z)2=(t)2(x)2(y)2(z)2  (2.5)

Because

(˜coshp,q(A))2(˜sinhp,q(A))2=1  (2.6)

the(p,q) -Lorentz transformations do not have the form

t=t˜coshp,q(ξ)x˜sinhp,q(ξ)  (2.7a)

x=x˜coshp,q(ξ)t˜sinhp,q(ξ) (2.7b)

but must have the form indicated by eqs-(2.1-2.2). Therefore,

t=t˜coshp,q(ξ)x˜sinhp,q(ξ)  (2.8a)

x=x˜coshp,q(ξ)t˜sinhp,q(ξ)  (2.8b)

The composition law of two successive(p,q) -Lorentz transformations with boost parameters ξ1,ξ2  is given by an ordinary matrix product leading to

t=tcoshp,q(ξ2)COSHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ1)+

tsinhp,q(ξ2)SINHp,q(ξ2)sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ1)

xcoshp,q(ξ2)COSHp,q(ξ2)sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ1)

xsinhp,q(ξ2)SINHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ1) (2.9)

x=xcoshp,q(ξ2)COSHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ1)+

xsinhp,q(ξ2)SINHp,q(ξ2)sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ1)

tsinhp,q(ξ2)SINHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ1)

tcoshp,q(ξ2)COSHp,q(ξ2)sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ1)  (2.10)

y=y,z=z  (2.11)

If the above composition is consistent with a group composition law, one should have

t=tcoshp,q(ξ3)COSHp,q(ξ3)xsinhp,q(ξ3)SINHp,q(ξ3) (2.12)

x=xcoshp,q(ξ3)COSHp,q(ξ3)tsinhp,q(ξ3)SINHp,q(ξ3)  (2.13)

y=y,z=z (2.14)

where the resulting boost parameterξ3 is now acomplicated functionξ3(ξ1,ξ2) ofξ1 andξ2 as shown below. It will no longer be given by the naive addition lawξ1+ξ2 . Once again, from eqs-(2.12-2.14) one can show the invariance of the Minkwoski spacetime interval

(t)2(x)2(y)2(z)2=(t)2(x)2(y)2(z)2  (2.15)

Equating eqs-(2.9, 2.10) with eqs-(2.12, 2.13) yields

sinhp,q(ξ3)SINHp,q(ξ3)=coshp,q(ξ2)COSHp,q(ξ2)sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ1)+

sinhp,q(ξ2)SINHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ1)  (2.16)

coshp,q(ξ3)COSHp,q(ξ3)=coshp,q(ξ2)COSHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ1)+

sinhp,q(ξ2)SINHp,q(ξ2)sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ1)  (2.17)

Dividing equation (2.16) by equation (2.17) gives in the left hand side:tanhp,q(ξ3)TANHp,q(ξ3) . As a result of the identities21

tanhp,q(A)=TANHp,q(A)sinhp,q(A)COSHp,q(A)=coshp,q(A)SINHp,q(A) (2.18)

this left-hand side becomes
tanhp,q(ξ3)TANHp,q(ξ3)=tanhp,q(ξ3)=TANHp,q(ξ3)  (2.19)

The right-handside is of the form

A+BC+D=(A/C)+(B/C)1+(D/C) (2.20)

whereA,B,C,D are the square roots of products of four hyperbolic functions. Due to the identities (2.18) it allows to eliminate the square roots in equation (2.20), and finally one arrives at

tanhp,q(ξ3)=tanhp,q(ξ1)+tanhp,q(ξ2)1+tanhp,q(ξ1)tanhp,q(ξ2)=TANHp,q(ξ3)=

TANHp,q(ξ1)+TANHp,q(ξ2)1+TANHp,q(ξ1)TANHp,q(ξ2),ξ3=ξ1+ξ2  (2.21)

It remains to explain that when(p,q)=(1,1)ξ3=ξ1+ξ2 . Therefore, the composition rule for the boost parameters is no longer additive. The reason behind this is because now the actual addition laws for the(p,q) -hyperbolic functions are of the form

˜coshp,q(ξ1ξ2)=coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ2)+sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ2)  (2.22)

˜sinhp,q(ξ1ξ2))=sinhp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ2)+coshp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ2)  (2.23)

˜tanhp,q(ξ1ξ2)=sinhp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ2)+coshp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ2)coshp,q(ξ1)COSHp,q(ξ2)+sinhp,q(ξ1)SINHp,q(ξ2)=

tanhp,q(ξ1)+TANHp,q(ξ2)1+tanhp,q(ξ1)TANHp,q(ξ2)  (2.24)

The functions˜coshp,q(ξ1ξ2),˜sinhp,q(ξ1ξ2),˜tanhp,q(ξ1ξ2) admit a power series expansion in terms of the(p,q) -Gauss binomial(ξ1ξ2)np,q , and defined by equations (1.4,1.5).

Due to the identitytanhp,q(A)=TANHp,q(A) , one can see that the expressions in equations (2.21, 2.24) are both the same and one ends up with

˜tanhp,q(ξ1ξ2)=tanhp,q(ξ3)=TANHp,q(ξ3)=

tanhp,q(ξ1)+tanhp,q(ξ2)1+tanhp,q(ξ1)tanhp,q(ξ2)=TANHp,q(ξ1)+TANHp,q(ξ2)1+TANHp,q(ξ1)TANHp,q(ξ2)  (2.25a)

               
Because of the following inequalities  
˜tanhp,q(A)=tanhp,q(A)=TANHp,q(A) (2.25b)

one learns that

ξ3=ξ1ξ2=ξ1+ξ2  (2.25c)

this last inequality in (2.26b) can be deduced by a simple inspection of the equalities in equation(2.25). Since the function˜tanhp,q appearing in the first term of equation(2.25a) is not the same astanhp,q , andTANHp,q , the argumentξ3 cannot be the same as the argumentξ1ξ2=ξ1+ξ2 . Therefore, when(p,q)=(1,1)ξ3=ξ1+ξ2 . It is only whenp=q=1  that the boost parameters are additiveξ3=ξ1+ξ2 .

Concluding, the complicated expression forξ3=ξ3(ξ1,ξ2) is explicitly given by evaluating the arctanhp,q,ARCTANHp,q  of the right hand side of equations (2.25), respectively. Both results lead to the sameξ3

ξ3=arctanhp,q(tanhp,q(ξ1)+tanhp,q(ξ2)1+tanhp,q(ξ1)tanhp,q(ξ2)) (2.26a)

ξ3=ARCTANHp,q(TANHp,q(ξ1)+TANHp,q(ξ2)1+TANHp,q(ξ1)TANHp,q(ξ2)) (2.26b)

Furthermore, because

(˜coshp,q(A))2(˜sinhp,q(A))2=1 (2.26c)

a careful inspection of eqs-(2.8) reveals that

˜sinhp,q(ξ1ξ2))=sinhp,q(ξ3)SINHp,q(ξ3) (2.27a)

˜coshp,q(ξ1ξ2)=coshp,q(ξ3)COSHp,q(ξ3) (2.27b)

but their ratio is equal: ˜tanhp,q(ξ1ξ2)=tanhp,q(ξ3)=TANHp,q(ξ3) . From equations (2.25) one can derive the addition law of velocities as in ordinary Special Relativity. Given

β1v1ctanhp,q(ξ1)=TANHp,q(ξ1) (2.28a)

β2v2ctanhp,q(ξ2)=TANHp,q(ξ2) (2.28b)

β3v3ctanhp,q(ξ3)=TANHp,q(ξ3),ξ3=ξ1+ξ2 (2.28c)

the addition law is

β3=β1+β21+β1β2  (2.9)

similarly one can obtain the subtraction law

β3=β1β21β1β2  (2.30)

such thatβ3 never exceeds1 whenβ1,β21 . So far we have studied the(p,q) -Lorentz boosts transformations. A (p,q) -rotation transformation along the z -direction gives

x=xcosp,q(θ)COSp,q(θ)ysinp,q(θ)SINp,q(θ) (2.31a)

y=ycosp,q(θ)COSp,q(θ)+xsinp,q(θ)SINp,q(θ) (2.31b)

t=t,z=z  (2.31c)

and leaves invariant the Minkowski spacetime line interval (2.5) due to the identity

cosp,q(θ)COSp,q(θ)+sinp,q(θ)SINp,q(θ)=1  (2.32)

The following relations among hyperbolic and trigonometric(p,q) functions21

sinhp,q(x)=isinp,q(ix),SINHp,q(x)=iSINp,q(ix),˜sinhp,q(x)=i˜sinp,q(ix),  (2.33)

coshp,q(x)=cosp,q(ix),COSHp,q(x)=COSp,q(ix),˜coshp,q(x)=˜cosp,q(ix),  (2.34)

will allow to evaluate the composition rule for two successive rotations with anglesθ1,θ2 about the z -axis. The composition rule for the angles is

˜tanp,q(θ1θ2)=tanp,q(θ3)=TANp,q(θ3)=

tanp,q(θ1)+tanp,q(θ2)1tanp,q(θ1)tanp,q(θ2)=TANp,q(θ1)+TANp,q(θ2)1TANp,q(θ1)TANp,q(θ2)  (2.35)

whereθ3=θ1θ2=θ1+θ2 . The composition law of two succesive(p,q) -Lorentz boosts transformations along two different axis directions are more complicated. The same occurs with a (p,q) -Lorentz boost transformation along any arbitrary direction. In general, the ordinary Lorentz transformations can be written in terms of the Pauli spin2×2 matricesσ1,σ2,σ3 , and the unit matrix1 as follows. Let us firstly define the2×2 matrix

Xxμσμ=t1+xσ1+yσ2+zσ3=(t+zxiyx+iytz) (2.36)

One can show that an ordinary Lorentz boost with parameterξ along any direction can be realized in terms of three parameters defined as

ξ=(ξ1,ξ2,ξ3);ξ||ξ||=(ξ1)2+(ξ2)2+(ξ3)2  (2.37)

and associated with the three directionsx,y,z , respectively. The Lorentz boost in this general case is

X'=exp(ξ12σ1+ξ22σ2+ξ32σ3)Xexp(ξ12σ1ξ22σ2ξ32σ3) (2.38)

Due toexp(A)exp(A)=1 , and because the determinant of a product of matrices is equal to the product of the determinants of the matrices, one then has

det(X')=det[exp(A)]det(X)det[exp(A)]=det(X)=

t2x2y2z2=t2x2y2z2 (2.39)

so that the transformations (2.38) leave the Minkowski spacetime interval invariant as expected. Given the unit vector

ˆξ(ξ1ξ,ξ2ξ,ξ3ξ),ˆξiˆξi=1(ˆξiσi)(ˆξjσj)=ˆξiˆξj(δij1+iεijkσk)=ˆξiˆξjδij1=1,

(ˆξiσi)(ˆξjσj)(ˆξkσk)=(ˆξkσk),(ˆξiσi)2n=1,(ˆξiσi)2n+1=ˆξiσi (2.40)

upon performing a Taylor series expansion one arrives at

exp(ξ12σ1+ξ22σ2+ξ32σ3)=cosh(ξ2)1+ˆξiσisinh(ξ2) (2.41a)

exp(ξ12σ1ξ22σ2ξ32σ3)=cosh(ξ2)1ˆξiσisinh(ξ2)  (2.41b)

and after evaluating the matrix product (2.38) one can read-off the expressions fort,x,y,z in terms oft,x,y,z and the boost parameters.

Guided by the above construction, a(p,q) -Lorentz boost along any direction can be realized in terms of the(p,q) deformed Pauli spin algebra generatorsσ(p,q)i , and the(p,q) exponentials (1.8-1.10) as follows3

X'=ep,q(ξ1σ(p,q)1+ξ2σ(p,q)2+ξ3σ(p,q)3)XEp,q(ξ1σ(p,q)1ξ2σ(p,q)2ξ3σ(p,q)3)  (2.42)

Due to the key relations

ep,q(A)Ep,q(A)=1ep,q(A)=M,Ep,q(A)=M1 (2.43a)

one will have4
det(X')=det(M)det(X)det(M1)=det(X)=

t2x2y2z2=t2x2y2z2  (2.43b)

and such that the Minkowski spacetime interval5 remains invariant under the transformations (2.42). One may notice that in the(p,q) -deformed case the relations in equation (2.40) are no longer obeyed,(ˆξiσ(p,q)i)(ˆξjσ(p,q)j)=1 , consequently the exponentials of the deformed generators

ep,q(ξi2σ(p,q)i)=coshp,q(ξ2)1+ˆξiσ(p,q)isinhp,q(ξ2)  (2.44a)

Ep,q(ξi2σ(p,q)i)=COSHp,q(ξ2)1+ˆξiσ(p,q)iSINHp,q(ξ2) (2.44b)

˜ep,q(ξi2σ(p,q)i)=˜coshp,q(ξ2)1+ˆξiσ(p,q)i˜sinhp,q(ξ2) (2.44c)

cannot longer be written in the Euler form, and this is one of the reasons behind the inequalities in equation(2.8).

1 Dedicated to the loving memory of Diana Eaton Riggle, a wonderful human being


2 Alternatively, one could flip the location of the exponentials in eq-(2.42)

3 The determinant here is the ordinary one and not the quantum determinant of a quantum matrix with non commuting entries

4 Deformations of the Minkowski spacetime interval (like the quantum determinant) will be the subject of future investigation

5 The mathematician Hemachandra and the Sanskrit poets like Virahanka, Gopala many centuries before Fibonacci were aware of these numbers that should be properly called Hemachandra numbers. See the Fields Institute Lectures on “Patterns of Numbers in Nature" by Manjul Bhargava

Concluding remarks

We finalize with a brief discussion on quantum groups, noncommutative spacetimes, κ -deformed Poincare algebra and quasi-crystals. In the case of κ -deformed quantum Poincare algebra it is not the deformation of the algebra that really matters, but the co-algebra (coproduct) and the associated non-commutative spacetime structure.24,25 The phase space as a whole does not have the Hopf algebra structure. In order to deform the phase space, one presumably has to make use of more general structures, like the one of Hopf algebroid. The momentum space associated withκ -deformation is curved.24,25 It remains to extend this work to the case of noncommutative spacetimes involving noncommuting coordinates, and to find the corresponding co-algebraic structures; i.e. the coproduct, antipode, counit.
It is known that with quantum groups one can introduce a form of coordinate quantization while preserving, continuously, all group symmetries.2-8 One can introduce coordinate quantization using discrete lattices, but prior to quantum groups no one could achieve quantization without breaking the continuous spacetime symmetries.2-8 We saw earlier that for the special valuesp=τ,q=τ1 , thep,q integers[n]p,q reduce to the Fibonacci numbers. The Golden meanτ is ubiquitous in the construction of quasi-crystals, and their associated non-crystallographic groups. Quasi-crystals (like the Penrose tiling with five-fold symmetry) can be constructed via the cut-and-projection mechanism of higher dimensional regular lattices; i.e. the projection onto lower dimensions is performed along directions with irrational slopes. It is warranted to explore further the results of this work within the context of coordinate quantization and Noncommutative geometry that will help us cast some light into Quantum Gravity.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to M. Bowers for assistance, and to the referee for suggestions to improve this work.

Conflict of interest

Author dealers there are no conflict of interest.

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