Bangladesh possesses a distinctive geographical position while being one of the hardest hit by climate change. The livelihood of a vast majority of Bangladeshis is jeopardized by various natural calamities on a regular basis. Women possess distinctive difficulties during any natural calamity. This study aimed to understand the correlation between gender, climate change, and vulnerability in Jamalpur district, Bangladesh. This study employed multi-method approach employing in-depth interviews with twenty women and five focus-group discussions. Findings revealed four vulnerability domains: (1) survival stresses—food, water and caregiving disruptions; (2) restricted resource access—land, credit and healthcare; (3) normative constraints on mobility and decision-making that heighten exposure to violence; and (4) institutional fragmentation that limits delivery of gender-responsive relief. Women are mostly vulnerable due to the lack of institutional facilities, social awareness, and the opportunity to have social services, financial accessibilities, and so on. Strengthening local disaster committees with female leadership, bundling climate-smart loans with training, and integrating early-warning, health and legal services could reposition women as frontline climate-resilience actors within district development planning and funding mechanisms. Abolishment of in equal gendered lenses, gendered sensitization of national and local policy and program implementation, etc. could be effective steps to reduce women's vulnerability.

Keywords: women, climate change, vulnerability, Jamalpur district

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a gendered risk multiplier: although women and men share the same physical environment, women in low- and middle-income settings typically face greater exposure, higher sensitivity, and lower adaptive capacity than their male counterparts.^1,2 Two reinforcing structural factors explain this disparity. First, gendered livelihood patterns place women—and the girls who assist them—at the front lines of natural-resource management for food, water, and household energy.³ Disruptions in any node of the water-energy-land-food nexus therefore cascade through women’s daily routines and nutritional security long before they reach national macro-indicators.⁴ Second, unequal access to assets, technology, and decision-making power limits women’s ability to anticipate, absorb, and recover from climate shocks.⁵

A growing empirical literature documents how these structural inequalities translate into concrete harms. In India, multi-year droughts have been linked to significant rises in physical, sexual, and emotional intimate-partner violence, suggesting that climatic stress can aggravate existing power imbalances inside the household.⁶ Longitudinal research from Latin America finds that extreme weather events systematically depress well-being indicators—particularly among poorer, female-headed households—by eroding livelihoods and social safety nets.⁷ Case studies in Bangladesh further reveal intersecting vulnerabilities: heightened caregiving burdens, food scarcity, and forced male out-migration converge to increase women’s anxiety, depression, and social isolation.⁸

Hydro-meteorological hazards amplify these patterns. Riverine and flash floods in South and Southeast Asia routinely destroy women’s productive assets, interrupt girls’ schooling, and compromise access to health services, with disproportionate consequences for maternal and neonatal outcomes.^9,10,11 Nigerian and Vietnamese evidence shows that women traders and urban residents face both direct losses (e.g., damaged inventory, housing) and indirect strains (e.g., caregiving during displacement, heightened food prices) that erode long-term resilience.^12,13 Where governance gaps exist, post-disaster relief often reproduces these inequities, leaving women with fewer resources to rebuild.¹⁴

However, exposure is not destiny. Comparative analyses of community-based adaptation in Nepal and policy reviews across South Asia demonstrate that gender-responsive strategies—secure land tenure, targeted credit, inclusive early-warning systems, and women’s leadership in local water committees—can significantly narrow resilience gaps.^2,5 Similar lessons are emerging from fisheries management in the Mediterranean, where incorporating women’s knowledge has improved household food security and diversified livelihoods under warming seas.¹⁵ Yet such successes remain the exception rather than the norm, owing to entrenched patriarchal norms that constrain women’s decision-space in both public adaptation planning and private resource allocation.^16,17

Bangladesh—ranked among the world’s most climate-vulnerable countries—offers a critical vantage point for advancing this debate. Jamalpur District, in particular, sits at the confluence of recurring river floods and seasonal droughts, exposing rural women to compound climate risks while simultaneously limiting their access to markets, credit, and health care. Understanding how these gendered vulnerabilities are produced and negotiated in everyday life is essential for designing equitable adaptation and disaster-risk-reduction policies. Building on the interdisciplinary insights outlined above, the present study therefore asks: In what ways do climate hazards interact with existing gender relations to shape women’s livelihoods, health, and autonomy in Jamalpur? Findings will inform national and local stakeholders seeking to craft climate policies that are not only technically sound but also socially just.

Vulnerabilities of women and marginal communities

Women within marginalized communities often experience heightened vulnerability in various environmental contexts, particularly in disaster-prone areas, where their social status exacerbates their exposure to risks associated with climate change and natural disasters.¹⁸ The interrelated impacts of gender roles, social authority, and environmental stresses combine to create a unique set of challenges that disproportionately affect women and marginalized groups.¹⁹

In flood-prone areas, cultural norms and gender inequities restrict women's agency and complicate their responses to environmental threats. Despite legislative measures promoting women's participation in governance and disaster management, these initiatives often fall short due to entrenched societal norms favoring men. Governance failures and gender biases can significantly diminish women's voices, limiting their capacity to influence decisions that affect their lives.¹² This situation creates a cycle of vulnerability, particularly as many studies indicate that flooding impacts disrupt women's daily activities, agricultural commitments, and livelihoods due to the destruction of crops and resources.²⁰

Recent findings from Nigeria highlighted that approximately 78% of rural indigenous women were adversely affected by floods intensified by climate change, leading to severe repercussions such as food insecurity and health risks.¹² The socio-economic landscape often leaves women with inadequate access to resources, compounding their vulnerabilities during flooding events, as evidenced in studies of indigenous peoples who face compounded discrimination due to their socio-economic and cultural standings.²¹ The dismantling of cultural norms that dictate gender roles is crucial in addressing the vulnerabilities of women during disasters, allowing for more equitable resource access and representation.²⁰

Moreover, the intersection of gender and socio-economic status is critical in understanding the nuanced vulnerabilities of women in marginalized communities.²² Women in developing nations disproportionately suffer from adverse health outcomes stemming from flooding, including increased maternal and child health risks.¹⁰ As women's reliance on community resources heightens their exposure during floods, systemic inequalities that underpin these vulnerabilities must be addressed to enhance their resilience and adaptive capacity.²³

Further qualitative research on women's experiences has revealed that coping strategies employed by women often face limitations during extreme weather events, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive understanding of women's roles in disaster risk management. This underscores the necessity to incorporate women's contributions and unique perspectives in disaster preparedness and community resilience.¹⁴ Collaborative efforts that empower women both socially and economically are essential in mitigating the disproportionate vulnerabilities faced by these populations.¹¹

Ultimately, addressing the vulnerabilities of women in marginalized communities requires intertwined approaches that span social, economic, and environmental dimensions.²⁴ By empowering women to advocate for their needs and facilitating equal representation in decision-making processes, communities can work towards creating more resilient frameworks capable of managing the challenges posed by climate change and urban flooding.¹³

Gendered perceptions and vulnerability

The complexities surrounding gendered perceptions of climate change and the resulting vulnerabilities are significant, particularly concerning women's roles in agriculture and resource management. Research by Aziz and Anjum emphasizes that entrenched social norms dictate divergent access levels to resources based on gender, which disproportionately impacts women’s adaptive capacities. Such norms manifest in various socio-cultural contexts, whereby women's involvement in climate-sensitive sectors, primarily agriculture, is often limited by traditionally prescribed roles that restrict their participation in decision-making processes.¹ This perspective is supported by Patel et al.,² who highlight that women's constrained involvement in agricultural labor compromises their capacity to adapt and thrive amidst changing climatic conditions.²

In Vietnam, the findings of Hlahla illustrate the systemic neglect of women in local climate action plans, emphasizing a broader issue of gender blindness in policymaking.³ Nagy et al., expand on this argument, asserting that a deep understanding of local socio-economic structures is essential to grasp the unique vulnerabilities faced by women due to long-standing socio-cultural practices.⁷ In many contexts, these vulnerabilities are exacerbated by combinations of economic disadvantage and climate-related challenges. Thus, an intersectional approach to understanding climate change effects is paramount, as it allows for nuanced interventions that take into account the differentiated realities of women from diverse backgrounds.⁶

Furthermore, the agricultural sector exemplifies how gender dynamics specifically influence adaptive capacities in the context of climate change. Research shows that women engaged in agriculture face challenges inherent not only to climate variability but also to socio-economic disparities that affect their access to resources and decision-making power.⁵ For instance, agricultural policies that overlook gendered perspectives may fail to address the specific needs of women, thereby perpetuating their vulnerabilities.⁴

Moreover, gendered vulnerability is not an isolated phenomenon but is closely linked to broader issues of social inequity and access to resources. Studies highlight that women, especially in developing countries, suffer disproportionately from the impacts of climate change due to their limited control over economic resources, compounded by socio-cultural barriers that hinder their engagement in effective adaptation strategies.⁸ Transformative strategies that enhance women's resilience in climate contexts are hence critical and have been advocated for across various studies, underscoring the need for targeted policy measures that empower women in climate adaptation.²

The urgency for inclusive climate action is corroborated by research that suggests existing frameworks often overlook the unique vulnerabilities women face, emphasizing the importance of integrating gender considerations into climate policies.¹⁵ This systemic incorporation can potentially foster more equitable outcomes, enabling women to both contribute to and benefit from climate resilience strategies while addressing the multitude of obstacles they face due to gendered socio-economic structures.

Intersectionality and structural barriers

Women’s roles and responsibilities, shaped by rigid gender norms, are central to understanding their experiences during climate crises. Research by Tanjeela and Rutherford emphasizes that women's participation in climate adaptation programs is significantly influenced by prevailing gender roles and social norms, reinforcing a system where women from ethnic minorities, particularly in drought-prone areas, are unable to engage fully due to their socio-demographic limitations.²⁵ This notion resonates with Goudet et al., who identify socioeconomic status, gender roles, and expectations as critical facets that heighten women's vulnerability to climate change. Their findings underscore that limited access to resources following natural disasters not only exacerbates immediate vulnerabilities but also has enduring mental health implications for women.⁸ Moreover, Jost et al. challenge the simplistic portrayal of women as a homogeneous group within climate change discourse, advocating for perspectives that acknowledge varied experiences influenced by local contexts.²⁶ This viewpoint is supported by Madhuri, who discusses how gendered vulnerabilities manifest differently across societies, often due to entrenched socio-cultural inequalities that dictate women's labor and access to decision-making.²⁷ The study conducted in Northwestern Bangladesh by Tanny et al. aligns with this understanding, illustrating how cultural traditions limit women's participation in public spheres, thus increasing their susceptibility to climate impacts.²⁸                    

The importance of intersectionality is further highlighted by Assad-Uz-Zaman et al., who indicate that ethnic minorities and women experience compounded vulnerabilities due to socioeconomic disparities that hinder their participation in adaptation initiatives.²⁹ The urgency for a shift towards inclusive climate governance is reinforced by research from Humayra et al., asserting that meaningful participation of women is pivotal for formulating effective climate policies in Bangladesh. They emphasize that women's involvement not only counters gender inequality but also leads to sustainable development outcomes.³⁰

The patriarchal elements in the context of women’s vulnerability

Patriarchal factors contribute to women's fragility which make it impossible for them to gain strength and independence. Strengthening women's resilience requires empowering women in all spheres of society, including the mental and emotional, the social, the economic, the political, and the cultural. Women may experience a sense of disadvantage due to the social stigma associated with leaving their homes and relocating in public spaces in the context of disaster. In many contexts, women's social and economic vulnerability is exacerbated by entrenched patriarchal norms that dictate their roles and limit their opportunities. For instance, in rural India, traditional patriarchal structures heavily influence women's access to education, thus perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependence. Shokeen details how in Dalit communities, the “fear of getting spoilt” serves to control women's sexuality through patriarchal modalities centered around caste and honour, significantly impacting their educational participation and autonomy.³¹ Similarly, Ntoimo and Isiugo-Abanihe argue that financial independence is vitally linked to women's control over their lives, a point underscored in broader discussions about the intersection of poverty and gender in Nigeria.³²

Moreover, domestic violence, often a manifestation of patriarchal dominance, critically destabilizes women's lives and fosters significant vulnerabilities. Menés and Safranoff elaborate on this, noting that the isolation experienced by women in violent relationships can exacerbate the effects of patriarchal control, thereby limiting their access to resources and networks that could bolster their independence and safety.³³ This is a critical aspect of understanding how patriarchal societal dynamics adversely affect women’s mental health and decision-making power, particularly during formative periods such as childbirth or in the aftermath of domestic abuse; however, specific empirical evidence linking these two phenomena requires more extensive examination.¹⁶

Patriarchal systems also impose significant barriers on women's health, particularly regarding reproductive health services. Akhter et al. highlight the reluctance of women from lower socio-economic backgrounds to utilize maternal healthcare services, emphasizing that cultural constructions of childbirth combined with patriarchal norms significantly shape their perceptions and experiences.³⁴ This point is further underscored in Sharma et al.'s examination of Nepali-speaking Bhutanese women, who face substantial health management challenges due to patriarchal constraints impacting their autonomy and access to information.³⁵

Furthermore, systemic patriarchy manifests through economic disparities that further entrench women's vulnerabilities. The India Patriarchy Index introduced by Singh et al. serves to quantify these disparities, revealing how relational imbalances due to sex continue to disadvantage women in household settings.¹⁷ This can be seen as part of a larger pattern where socio-economic status is correlated with power dynamics within relationships, directly affecting women's decision-making capabilities and overall wellbeing.³⁶

Finally, the interplay between patriarchy and socio-economic status cannot be overlooked, as evidenced by studies such as that by Sultana et al., which illustrates the stigma unmarried women face in patriarchal societies—often leading to significant emotional distress and social ostracization.³⁷ Gendered discrimination rooted in cultural norms affects not just individual women but propagates systemic inequalities that persist across generations.

Institutional and policy responses to gendered climate vulnerability

Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) in 2009, which considers women as part of adaptation and resilience.³⁸ Research has shown that women’s participation and special needs remain neglected in the implementation of this policy.³⁹ Women’s participation in local disaster management committees is often on paper but not implemented in practice (Arora-Jonsson, S., 2011). Especially in flood-prone areas, women’s safety, health and privacy are not given due consideration in shelters and rehabilitation systems.⁴⁰ In areas like Jamalpur district, women’s health needs, lack of safe shelter, and lack of access to information during disasters exacerbate their vulnerability.¹⁸ In such a context, some NGOs such as CARE Bangladesh and Action Aid have tried to conduct women-led adaptation activities. CARE’s “SHOUHARDO III” program has taken initiatives to increase women’s capacity building, training and social participation in disaster prevention (CARE Bangladesh, 2020). Terry G., 2009 shown that when women are active in the adaptation process, it is more effective and practical solutions are created (Terry G., 2009). However, these NGO-based initiatives are often uncoordinated with national policies, so their impact is often limited (Rai N. et al., 2021). Lack of proper coordination between government institutions and non-governmental organizations is a major obstacle to women-sensitive adaptation activities. Moreover, women's voices remain marginalized in adaptation planning adopted at the local level. Existing studies have mainly focused on national-level policies and have mostly been limited to Dhaka-centric or coastal region-based analyses. Direct research on women's climate risk and institutional responses in inland flood-prone areas like Jamalpur district is relatively scarce. Our research aims to fill this gap by exploring the relationship between the local realities of women's climate-related risks and existing institutional responses, which may lead to the development of effective, place-based, and gender-sensitive adaptation policy proposals.

This research used a multimethod approach, including in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGD).In the study examined the floodplain of the Jamuna River in Bangladesh. The districts of Gaibandha, Jamalpur, and Sirajganj all lie within the vast Jamuna floodplain.³⁹ Jamalpur district is located in northern Bangladesh and contains 18.16 square kilometers of forest areas out of a total district area of 2115.12 square kilometers. The district is located between latitudes 24°34′ and 25°26′ north and longitudes 89°40′ and 90°12′ east.⁴¹ Jamalpur, unlike the other districts, has a nice, warm, and moderate climate. Winters have much lower precipitation rates than summers. Jamalpur has an average annual temperature of 26.0°C. Every year, an average of 1963 millimeters of rain fall here. The average yearly temperature in this area ranges from 33.3 degrees to 12 degrees.⁴¹ The Jamuna, Brahmaputra, Jhenai, Banar, Jirjira, and Chhatal Rivers are among the most significant in this region.⁴² Data collected by 20 participants for in depth interview (IDI) and five focus group discussions were held to gather the required data. All of the responders were chosen purposefully. We have taken four women from each upazila for in-depth Interviewing and conducted one FGD in each upazila. As we have our presence within the location for a long period of time, we have successfully identified the key respondent for the study. The primary condition for being a respondent of the study were to be a victim of any kind of natural clamities especially flood, have to displace from the residential location and person with deliverable capacities. The data was examined thematically in accordance with the study's context-specific goals. Firstly we established several themes based on our obtained responses, then put all the field data together under the theme. We have also established a connection of primary data with the available secondary literature.

Women experience difficulties during any natural calamity

Women in flood-affected areas experience insecurity and losses due to the devastating effects of floods on their lives. They are particularly vulnerable to the effects of public health emergencies, including the loss of homes, lack of access to education, and the trauma of losing loved ones.⁴³ The mental health impacts on women include anxiety, stress, sleep issues, panic attacks, difficulties concentrating, lethargy, nightmares, irritability, and mood swings (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). Pregnant women are especially vulnerable during floods, facing potential health risks such as infections or miscarriages. Adequate healthcare facilities and access to prenatal care are crucial to addressing their maternal health needs (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). Women in displacement camps face challenges in breastfeeding due to a lack of privacy, stress, and unsanitary conditions. “The lack of proper facilities meant we had to reduce our food intake, compounding our misery and leaving us weak and vulnerable. And as if that wasn't enough, caring for our children became an ordeal in itself. Breastfeeding became a struggle, birthing became a risk, and the already daunting task of child care became nearly impossible” (Sofuza, age: 46 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). This leads to the discontinuation of breastfeeding, impacting both the mother and child's health. Women also suffer from emotional trauma in greater numbers than men after natural disasters.⁴³ Women experience many types of sexual harassment, such as rape and coercion into sexual labor during floods.⁴⁴

Floods, which occur when water spills onto typically dry land, pose a major risk to water infrastructure, frequently leading to water source contamination and supply system disturbances. The issue of providing safe drinking water during floods is a complex difficulty that not only poses a threat to public health but also worsens the consequences of the disaster on impacted populations (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur).

Flooding lead to fecal contamination of drinking water sources, even if the source is initially clean. In flood-prone settlements in Northwest Ethiopia, a high prevalence of fecal contamination in household drinking water was found, indicating the problem of clean drinking water during floods. Factors such as family size, the availability of a toilet, and the usage of a separate container to draw water from its storage were identified as predictors for fecal coliform contamination of household water in flood-prone areas.⁴⁵

Bukhari and Rizvi, mentioned that displacement camps often have inadequate and unsanitary washrooms and toilets, which can contribute to unsafe conditions for women. These camps are often overcrowded, which further exacerbates the problem of insufficient facilities. The lack of proper hygiene and sanitation in these camps can lead to health issues, including malnutrition and food shortages for pregnant and breastfeeding women.⁴⁶

Floods can worsen existing gender inequities and increase dangers for women by disrupting communities and straining societal structures. “The toilet facilities were practically non-existent, leaving us with no choice but to endure the humiliation of relieving ourselves in full view of everyone else. It was degrading, demoralizing, and utterly inhumane” (Mollika, Age: 37 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Menstrual items were not available during the evacuation from flood-affected areas, resulting in the prolonged usage of dirty goods or blood-stained clothing. Unsanitary habits can lead to reproductive tract infections such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and secondary infertility.⁴⁷ Inadequate access to menstruation products, hygiene education, and waste disposal can result in serious health consequences. Inadequate menstrual hygiene significantly contributes to lower reproductive tract infections, potentially resulting in morbidity and serious health issues.⁴⁸

In Jamalpur, where flooding susceptibility is significant, the economic impacts of floods go beyond just the immediate damage to infrastructure and agriculture. Women are significantly affected by the negative consequences of natural catastrophes, typically carrying a greater cost compared to others. Women are faced with challenging decisions about their livelihood assets due to the flooding of farmlands and the loss of houses and enterprises (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur).

After floods, women in Islampur are forced to sell their agricultural goods, livestock, and possessions at very low prices. The need to quickly earn money to address immediate necessities like food, housing, and medical care sometimes results in people underestimating the value of their possessions. The economic strain intensifies their susceptibility, as selling assets reduces their ability to recover and rebuild after the flood (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur).

Furthermore, the widespread feelings of fear and financial losses faced by women during floods in Jamalpur extend beyond just economic challenges. Displacement, income loss, and social structure breakdown increase vulnerability, leading to heightened risks of exploitation and abuse for women. Women have an extra strain as they work to maintain their families' well-being despite the confusion and uncertainty caused by disruptions in everyday life and economic hardships (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur).

Women in flood-prone areas in Dewangonj are vulnerable to the loss of their livelihood assets, which they are often forced to sell at low prices during floods (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). This vulnerability is due to the impacts of climate change, such as cyclones, floods, and seasonal droughts, which affect the distribution of livelihood capital for women in these areas.⁴⁹

Flooding in specific areas might lead to a distinct set of issues, such as animals entering homes. As floodwaters increase, animals are forced out of their native habitats and look for shelter in higher regions, like homes and buildings. This surge of creatures may encompass not only snakes but also insects, rodents, amphibians, and even bigger mammals (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). A study found that drowning was more commonly reported in Sirajgonj district, while Pabna district was found to be more prone to snake bites. In Sirajgonj district, there were 140 reported cases of drowning and 49 cases of snake bites, with 7 deaths from snake bites. In Pabna district, there were 58 reported cases of drowning and 62 cases of snake bites, with 17 deaths from snake bites.⁵⁰

Insects like mosquitoes and ants enter homes in search of dry refuge, causing annoyance and perhaps carrying diseases that pose health risks. Rodents may also seek shelter, raising worries about property damage and disease spread (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Amphibians forced out of wet habitats may enter buildings, leading to surprising interactions with occupants. Large mammals, such as stray canines or vermin-like rodents, might be compelled to relocate to elevated areas, occasionally intruding into residences in pursuit of refuge. This not only endangers residents but can also lead to conflicts between humans and wildlife (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, and Jamalpur).

Waterlogging can lead to oxygen shortages in the soil, which hamper root growth and function, ultimately resulting in yield losses in cereal crops like maize, wheat, and barley. The inundation caused by flooding can result in a phenological lag in crops, leading to significant losses in the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), especially in the earlier stages. The extension of phenology latency due to flooding can further exacerbate crop losses.⁵¹

Floods, known for their abrupt beginning and disruptive impact, can hinder prompt access to crucial healthcare services, especially for pregnant women in need of urgent medical care. A major concern is the disruption of transportation infrastructure, which makes roads inaccessible and hinders pregnant women from quickly reaching healthcare facilities. Floodwaters can cover highways, posing a risk to travelers and potentially rendering movement unfeasible. This may cause delays in accessing medical facilities, increasing the risk of difficulties for both the mother and the unborn child (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur).

When conventional healthcare services are unavailable, pregnant women may turn to unqualified delivery attendants, increasing the likelihood of problems. Poor sanitation and hygiene following floods increase the susceptibility of pregnant women to infections, creating an extra risk to maternal and newborn health (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur).

Floods can disrupt cooking arrangements, making it challenging for households to prepare meals. “With each passing day, the struggle to provide food for my family became more desperate. Cooking supplies were dwindling, and the floodwaters made it nearly impossible to forage for fresh ingredients. We were forced to ration what little we had left, knowing that every meal could be our last" (Hafiza, age: 41 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Lack of access to cooking facilities and fuel sources during floods can hinder the cooking process. Limited availability of food and compromised food quality during flood-induced food insecurity can further exacerbate the challenges of cooking (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). Female-headed households (FHHs) and male-headed households (MHHs) adopt coping strategies such as skipping meals and reducing food portion size, which can impact the cooking process. Proper arrangements for cooking, including access to cooking facilities, fuel sources, and sufficient food supplies, are crucial for households to maintain their food security during floods.⁵²

Access to services for women in different agencies

Access to crucial services for women in different organizations in Jamalpur is a major and widespread difficulty, highlighting the necessity for a thorough investigation of the obstacles hindering their complete and fair involvement in social progress. Women face ongoing barriers in several fields, such as healthcare, education, work, and legal assistance, which restrict their access to essential services, leading to gender inequalities and preventing them from achieving their rights and full potential (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur).

Religious beliefs and societal constraints exits in the area. These beliefs and prohibitions frequently constrain the movement of women and hinder their ability to enter public areas (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, and Jamalpur). Women often face pressure to prioritize their roles as spouses and mothers, potentially limiting their opportunities for education and employment. Conventional gender norms and cultural practices help maintain these limitations.⁴⁰

Due to natural catastrophes, women may face difficulties getting services from governmental and non-governmental entities. Legal support for gender-based violence (GBV) during natural disasters is difficult to acquire in Jamalpur. The presence of patriarchy and ineffective local administration hinders individuals from utilizing the state legal aid system to address gender-based violence during catastrophes (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). These issues hinder women from seeking assistance and support from existing services in times of distress.⁵³ “NGOs played a vital role in complementing government efforts. They provided relief aid, including food, clean water, and hygiene supplies, which were especially crucial for pregnant women and young children. These organizations also offered counseling and support services to help us cope with the mental strain of the disaster” (Aklima, Age: 38 years, Islampur, Jamalpur). Some women unable to receive services offered by governmental and non-governmental organizations after natural disasters due to reasons like limited resources, insufficient infrastructure, and a lack of tailored help for women's unique needs.⁵⁴

A study found various factors within the healthcare system that influence the use of healthcare services by elderly women in rural areas, such as the legal regulations for elderly care, insufficient healthcare assistance, and the expertise of healthcare personnel. “The Union Health Complex served as a primary source of medical assistance. Pregnant women like myself relied on their services for prenatal care, check-ups, and access to essential medications. The health workers there provided invaluable guidance on staying healthy during pregnancy, even amidst the chaos of the flood” (Hafiza, age: 41 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Healthcare workers highlighted their support efforts, whereas rural elder ladies reported discriminatory practices in accessing medical care. Senior women had limited access to adequate healthcare due to inadequate equipment, supplies, and drugs at local clinics. The supply of drugs was found to be erratic and inadequate.⁵⁵

Women in Jamalpur participate in a variety of enterprises, such as handicrafts, shops, and tailoring, for their livelihood. These activities promote economic growth, empower women to achieve financial autonomy, and enhance their standard of living (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). Patra women in the Sylhet district of Bangladesh create efficient bamboo handicrafts, with education, financial access, and market proximity enhancing their productivity, as indicated by Sawrov.⁵⁶ Female entrepreneurs in Bangladesh have profited from the digital marketplace, enabling them to establish firms, achieve self-reliance, and assist unemployed women in securing jobs.⁵⁷

Major barriers and overcome the process of women

Climate change disproportionately affects populations highly dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods, typically from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, who frequently have limited ability to mitigate natural disasters. Most of the impoverished population worldwide consists of women, leading to women bearing increased risks and heavier costs due to the effects of climate change. Gender inequalities in decision-making processes and labor markets hinder women from making significant contributions to climate-related planning, policy-making, and implementation (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). Governments and international organizations must create new frameworks, regulations, and laws that entail collaboration with women to ensure practical solutions are proposed and executed, especially with the supply of cleaner energies.⁵⁸

Women are often economically reliant and have limited access to education and information, which impairs their capacity to address climate-related risks in agriculture and cattle (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur).Women's contribution to addressing climate change is frequently undervalued, despite their commitment to their families during periods of drought and limited food and water supplies.⁵⁹

Women experience gender disparities from the frequency and severity of disasters, the depletion of natural resources, and health issues. Women's roles in combating climate change are often overlooked, and their efforts in prevention, adaptation, and mitigation methods are not widely acknowledged, underestimated. (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur). Women encounter unequal access to resources designated for combating climate change, which hinders their ability to engage effectively in tackling the issue.⁶⁰

Women in Jamalpur encounter obstacles in the comprehension stage of climate change adaptation due to a lack of information on adaptation strategies. Women have obstacles in adapting to climate change due to inadequate agricultural infrastructure and issues in policy implementation (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Migration constraints additionally impede women's capacity to address the effects of climate change. Demographic factors such as gender are crucial in influencing adaptation strategies within a socioecological context (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur). Women have obstacles in obtaining resources and participating in decision-making, which hinder their capacity to adapt efficiently to climate change.⁶¹

Several strategies implemented to overcome barriers in the process of overcoming climate change in terms of women. Developing a three-step method for conducting gender-specific risk assessment, analysis, and strategy, focusing on recognizing the unique effects of climate change on women and creating tailored adaptation strategies. Incorporate gender concerns into capacity development initiatives for implementing climate adaptation actions. This may entail offering training and resources to women to improve their expertise and abilities in climate change adaptation. Update existing state action plans on climate change to incorporate gender perspectives. This guarantees that the distinct requirements and susceptibilities of women are taken into consideration in climate change adaptation plans. Encourage women to take part in and lead decision-making processes about climate change adaptation (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Support for local projects that target the unequal effects of climate change on different genders. This may include offering financial support and resources to local initiatives that empower women and strengthen their ability to adapt to climate change.⁶²

Implementing gender-specific educational and training initiatives on climate change to enhance awareness and comprehension among women can bring about a positive change. Besides facilitating access to knowledge and resources on climate change through focused outreach and communication programs that explicitly target women (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur), Programs need to be supported that enhance the skills and abilities of women to engage in climate change mitigation and adaptation activities. Advocate for increased participation of women in climate change decision-making processes at all levels, which is crucial (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur). Besides, facilitating partnerships and collaborations among women's organizations, research institutions, and policymakers to enhance knowledge sharing and learning about climate change challenges can bring effective resistance.⁶³

Women may enhance their understanding and expertise on climate change through awareness campaigns, educational initiatives, and training sessions. These programs can offer women knowledge on the reasons and impacts of climate change, along with methods for lessening its consequences and adjusting to them. Increasing awareness can empower women by providing them with knowledge about the obstacles they encounter and the steps they can take to overcome them (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). Education programs can provide women with the essential knowledge and skills needed to carry out sustainable practices in their agricultural endeavors. Training programs can deepen their comprehension of climate change and provide them with practical skills for mitigating and adapting to climate change. These programs can enable women to engage in combating climate change and support sustainable development.⁶⁴

The institutional facilities and accessibilities of women

Bangladesh has distinct climate change and catastrophe management systems that lack a coordinated strategy. The absence of coordination between climate change and disaster management in Jamalpur hinders the creation of specialized institutions at the local or community level to tackle climate change issues (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). The lack of a cohesive strategy between climate change and disaster management impedes the creation of proactive and sustainable disaster management and climate change adaptation solutions. Integrating climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) is essential for decreasing community vulnerability, enhancing resilience, and mitigating the impacts of climate-related disasters (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, and Jamalpur). Enhancing Bangladesh's capacity to address climate change and catastrophes in the long run for human welfare and sustainable development can be achieved by overcoming obstacles and encouraging the integration of DRR and CCA.⁶⁵

Local government organizations in Jamalpur prioritize ongoing development efforts, while microfinance institutions (MFIs) and development NGOs carry out frequent development initiatives and loan programs (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). The local government system in Bangladesh has had little success in terms of efficacy, devolution of authority, democratic principles, and public participation.⁶⁶

Addressing climate change challenges in Bangladesh is a significant financial burden at both the central and community levels. In Bangladesh, the current climate change and disaster management systems operate independently, with limited collaboration between them.⁶⁷ Inequities in adaptation might result from a lack of collaboration among many stakeholders. Climate-induced disasters in Bangladesh disproportionately affect women, who are the most impacted demographic in communities. Climate change has a direct impact on women's socioeconomic vulnerabilities, such as food security, water consumption, health, and livelihood.²⁵ The national government has access to international financing and resources, but local governments, where citizens usually seek solutions, are generally lacking in political and financial resources.⁶⁵ The disparity in resources can impede local governments' capacity to successfully tackle climate change concerns. The lack of a gender-responsive environment in Bangladesh intensifies the difficulties women confront in adjusting to climate change.⁶⁵ Addressing the financing challenge at both the national and grassroots levels is essential for effective climate change adaptation in Bangladesh.

Disaster and women’s vulnerability

Women's catastrophe experiences are adversely affected by factors such as inadequate disaster preparedness, limited access to safe locations, concerns about displacement, distance from shelters, and risk of abuse in shelters, poverty, and the low cultural status of women. “As a woman living in Bangladesh, the reality of climate change hits close to home. With each passing year, the frequency and intensity of natural disasters like floods, flash floods, and droughts seem to increase, leaving our communities reeling in their wake. And it's the poorest among us who bear the heaviest burden” (Mollika, age: 37 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Women frequently encounter challenging decisions involving the potential for abuse or death during disasters, while shelters provide inadequate seclusion and can heighten the risk of abuse. Women may encounter societal shame when forced to leave their homes due to a calamity (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). Poor hygiene and substandard living conditions, including insufficient shelters, bathroom facilities, and secure gender-segregated living spaces, increase health risks for women in disasters.⁶⁸

In the similar way, women in Jamalpur are regarded as the most susceptible demographic during natural calamities like floods where one respondents said “they encounter a range of difficulties and hardships, such as inadequate access to food, clothing, and shelter” (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). During disaster, women have the primary responsibility for safeguarding their homes, children, family members, livestock, and possessions. “During floods, when we're forced to seek refuge on embankments or in overcrowded shelters, we become easy targets for sexual harassment and exploitation. It's a terrifying reality that adds another layer of fear and vulnerability to an already desperate situation” (Aklima, Age: 38 years, Islampur, Jamalpur). Women encounter various challenges during floods, including theft, fuel scarcity, insecurity, and insufficient restroom facilities, fear of snakes and mosquitoes, and transportation difficulties. Women are essential in managing disasters and supporting their families through and after floods, despite facing challenges (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur).

Research in Bangladesh shows that vulnerability to floods differs for agriculture-based livelihoods, with women being more vulnerable than men. One study emphasizes that women living in flood-prone regions face unequal access to decision-making authority and resource entitlements, increasing their susceptibility to flood risks. A study highlights the significance of strategies and interventions based on risk assessment to mitigate the effects of intersecting factors leading to gender-specific vulnerability, especially among impoverished and marginalized groups dependent on agriculture in flood-prone regions.⁶⁹ “And while we struggle to meet our basic needs, the ever-present threat of climate change looms overhead, exacerbating our already precarious situation. With limited resources and support, we're left feeling powerless to address the challenges we face” (Hafiza, age: 41 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur).

Women belonging to marginalized and underprivileged groups are disproportionately impacted by climate threats because of cultural norms and their reproductive and productive responsibilities. These women experience increased susceptibility and are more severely affected by the consequences of climate threats (FGD-2, Tegharia, Charpakerdho Union, Madarganj, Jamalpur). Cultural traditions frequently restrict their ability to get resources and assistance for enhancing their livelihoods, rendering them more vulnerable to climatic risks. Women's vulnerability might be worsened by their dual reproductive and productive roles, which can lead to increased responsibilities and restricted income-generating opportunities (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). Women, despite their significant contributions to families and communities, are frequently overlooked in climate change planning and have limited chances to engage in adaptation initiatives.¹¹

Climate change disproportionately affects those heavily dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods, particularly those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Most of the impoverished population worldwide consists of women, leading to increased vulnerability and heavier consequences from climate change (FGD-3, Char Takuria Village, Pogoldigha, Sharisabari, Jamalpur). Women's limited involvement in decision-making processes and labor markets hinders their ability to make significant contributions to climate-related planning, policy-making, and implementation.⁵⁸

Women's groups have a crucial impact on disaster management by participating in preparedness, response, recovery, and risk reduction, which helps enhance community resilience and foster lasting social transformation. These organizations address the social, economic, environmental, and health effects on women in both pre- and post-disaster scenarios (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). Empowering women and encouraging their active involvement can help resolve inequities and achieve gender equality, resulting in more effective disaster management measures (FGD-4, Berergram, Belgachha, Islampur, Jamalpur). “But despite the overwhelming odds stacked against us, we refuse to give up hope. We know that change is possible, and we're ready to fight for our rights and our future. By coming together, raising our voices, and demanding action, we can create a more equitable and resilient society for all" (Sofuza, age: 46 years, Sharisabari, Jamalpur).

Women have obstacles to assuming leadership positions in disaster risk reduction (DRR) because of discriminatory beliefs and insufficient training and understanding of disaster management. Women are essential in mitigating disaster vulnerabilities through their roles as home managers and contributors to environmental conservation, despite facing many obstacles (FGD-1, Halkarchar, Chukaivbari, Dewangonj, Jamalpur). Women's leadership in catastrophe risk reduction (DRR) is crucial for incorporating a variety of viewpoints and backgrounds, resulting in enhanced and comprehensive catastrophe resilience tactics.⁷⁰

The population of the Jamalpur area are particularly vulnerable to the effects of natural disasters and infectious illnesses. Moving to a new area presents difficulties, especially in the areas of business and survival (missing from basic services health, education etc.). Ensuring access to land, improving livelihoods, providing proper access to information and education, promoting community development among women, fostering self-dependence, empowering women, and increasing their participation in decision-making are imperative in Bangladesh to confront vulnerability, climate change, and various climate change-induced disasters.

Based on the analysis conducted, the major areas that require improvement in order to address the vulnerability of women to climate-induced natural and environmental changes are as follows:

1. Increase knowledge and skills on climate change mitigation and adaptation issues: It is important to provide training and educational programs to communities, focusing on climate change and its impacts. This will help them understand the need for mitigation and adaptation measures and enable them to take appropriate actions.
2. Support homes based climate smart income generating activities: Encourage and support households in implementing income-generating activities that are climate-smart. This can include promoting sustainable agriculture practices, eco-tourism, or renewable energy initiatives.
3. Improve health, education, and agricultural marketing services at extreme isolated char land areas: Focus on improving access to healthcare, education, and agricultural marketing services in isolated char land areas. This can be done by establishing mobile health clinics, providing educational resources.

As the incidence and severity of climate-related calamities escalate, it is imperative that we undertake to establish a disaster mitigation and prevention culture that is predicated upon the distinct requirements, perspectives, contributions, and capacities of females, males, juveniles, and adolescents.⁷¹ Improving gender equality in the marketplace is essential to promoting meaningful and sustained economic development via women's livelihood initiatives, especially in disaster-prone regions. Millions of people, men and women alike, are held back from realizing their full potential by outdated gender conventions, expectations, and prejudices. These gender norms, which are often reinforced by members of both sexes, have a profoundly negative impact on a country's human capital, resulting in slower economic development, lower food output, and worse measures of quality of life. Education, training, advancement in one's current position, new positions, promotions, loans, and lines of credit are all impeded by systemic barriers.^72–104

None.

The authors declare there is no conflict of interest.

None.

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